Question: You are conducting a literature review of published articles on the relationship between ambient air pollution and lung cancer. The following statements are taken from some of the introduction and discussion sections of the articles you found during your literature review. State which of Hill’s causal criteria each of the statements supports and describe one general flaw associated with that criterion.

1. The risk of lung cancer mortality increases in proportion to increases in the amount of daily exposure to ambient air pollution.
2. The risk of lung cancer for those living in densely populated urban centers with high levels of ambient air pollution is much higher than the risk of lung cancer for those living in areas with very low levels of ambient air pollution.
3. Many studies have been conducted in a variety of settings and populations, and they have all produced similar results.

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